Culture is generally regarded as a way of life. Spencer-Oatey (2012) argued that culture determines people’s choices in areas such as food and feeding habits, clothing, music and singing, exercise and relaxation, as well as feelings and communication. It also influences how societies balance harmony and aggression and how they define what is fundamental or trivial. Tyler, as cited by Spencer-Oatey, described culture as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts, morals, laws, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” Radhika (2020) further affirmed that culture serves as a blueprint that determines how people live, reason and behave, including the customs and practices inherited from forebears and passed on to future generations.
Culture consists of different components, broadly categorised into material and non-material culture. Material culture refers to the concrete, physical and tangible creations of a people, such as shelter, fashion and artistic objects which they produce, use and exchange. Non-material culture, on the other hand, refers to the intangible aspects of human existence, including beliefs, attitudes and values that shape people’s behaviour. Radhika (2020) noted that both tangible and intangible elements—such as utensils, language, knowledge and behaviour—constitute the specific components of culture. Among the major components commonly identified are values, norms, symbols and language within a particular group of people.
Values form an essential part of culture and are closely related to ethics. They include ideas about what is good or bad, acceptable or unacceptable, desirable or undesirable, and proper or improper behaviour expected within a society. Examples of values upheld in many societies include respect for the elderly, reverence for parents and authorities, cleanliness and generosity. These values represent guiding principles that support people’s beliefs, while beliefs themselves are specific ideas that individuals or groups hold to be true (University of Peshawar, n.d.).
Norms are another important component of culture. They are rules developed by a group of people to guide behaviour in different situations, indicating what individuals ought to do and what they should avoid. Such expectations help society regulate the conduct of its members. Norms generally exist in two forms: proscriptive and prescriptive. Proscriptive norms identify behaviour that is unacceptable or prohibited, while prescriptive norms describe behaviour that is approved or expected. For instance, acts such as rape, robbery, kidnapping and assassination fall under proscribed behaviour, whereas paying taxes, obeying traffic regulations and maintaining good hygiene represent prescribed norms.
Norms also exist in several forms, including folkways, mores, laws and taboos. Folkways are informal and everyday customs or practices, such as greetings and other social courtesies, which usually attract mild consequences when violated. Mores, however, are more serious and strongly sanctioned norms, such as the prohibition of rape or murder, which societies expect individuals to observe because of the grave consequences associated with their violation. Laws represent formal norms enacted by legislatures and enforced by governments through sanctions. Taboos refer to culturally forbidden or highly offensive acts, such as adultery in certain communities. The violation of established societal norms may attract sanctions ranging from social exclusion to imprisonment (Wiley-Blackwell, 2007).
Symbols also play an important role in culture. They are representations that convey particular meanings within a society. Symbols may take the form of objects, expressions, actions or gestures that stand for something else. For instance, a flag, a phrase, a colour such as red, or a waving hand can all function as symbols. The primary purpose of symbols is to communicate meaning. For example, the crowing of a cockerel at dawn is commonly interpreted as a signal that a new day has begun and may also serve as an informal alarm prompting people to prepare for the day’s activities (University of Peshawar, n.d.).
Language is another fundamental component of culture. Culture is often regarded as a social heritage transmitted from one generation to another largely through language. Language refers to the organised system of words, symbols and gestures used to convey information and meaning among people. Those who receive the message interpret and respond accordingly. Language may be verbal or non-verbal. Verbal language involves spoken communication, while non-verbal language may take written or gestural forms. For example, the spoken word “no” signifies refusal, just as the shaking of the head can convey the same meaning (FLDM, 2020).
Culture is not static. It continually evolves as societies interact, develop and experience new influences. As contacts and exchanges increase within and across societies, cultural practices and expressions also change over time.
